![\"\"](\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.mauritiustimes.com\/mt\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/02\/The-Conversation-e1535448713758.jpg?resize=146%2C15&ssl=1\")
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Should people be forced to wear face masks in public? That\u2019s the question facing governments as more countries unwind their lockdowns.\u00a0Over 30\u00a0countries have made masks compulsory in public,\u00a0including\u00a0Germany, Austria and Poland. This is despite\u00a0the science\u00a0saying masks do little to protect wearers, and\u00a0only might\u00a0prevent them from infecting other people.<\/span><\/p>\n Nicola Sturgeon, the Scottish first minister, has nonetheless announced new guidelines\u00a0advising Scots\u00a0to wear masks for shopping or on public transport, while the UK government\u00a0is expected to\u00a0announce a\u00a0new stance\u00a0shortly. Meanwhile, US vice president Mike Pence has controversially\u00a0refused to\u00a0mask up.<\/span><\/p>\n This all has echoes of the great influenza pandemic, aka\u00a0the Spanish flu, which\u00a0killed some\u00a050 million people in 1918-20. It\u2019s a\u00a0great case study\u00a0in how people will put up with very tough restrictions, so long as they think they have merit.<\/span><\/p>\n In the US, no disease in history led to such intrusive restrictions as the great influenza. These included closures of schools, churches, soda fountains, theatres, movie houses, department stores and barber shops, and regulations on how much space should be allocated to people in indoor public places.<\/span><\/p>\n There were fines against coughing, sneezing, spitting, kissing and even talking outdoors \u2013 those the Boston Globe called \u201cbig talkers\u201d. Special influenza police were hired to round up children playing on street corners and occasionally even in their own backyards.<\/span><\/p>\n Restrictions were similarly tough in Canada, Australia and South Africa, though much less so in the UK and continental Europe. Where there were such restrictions, the public accepted it all with few objections. Unlike the\u00a0long history of cholera, especially in Europe, or\u00a0the plague\u00a0in the Indian subcontinent from 1896 to around 1902, no mass violence erupted and blame was rare \u2013 even against Spaniards or minorities.<\/span><\/p>\n Face masks came closest to being the measure that people most objected to, even though masks were often popular at first. The Oklahoma City Times in October 1918 described an \u201carmy of young women war workers\u201d appearing \u201con crowded street cars and at their desks with their faces muffled in gauze shields\u201d. From the same month, The Ogden Standard reported that \u201cmasks are the vogue\u201d, while the Washington Times told of how they were becoming \u201cgeneral\u201d in Detroit.<\/span><\/p>\n There was scientific debate from the beginning about whether the masks were effective, but the game began to change after French bacteriologist\u00a0Charles Nicolle\u00a0discovered in October 1918 that the influenza was much smaller than any other known bacterium.<\/span><\/p>\n The news spread rapidly, even in small-town American newspapers. Cartoons were published that read, \u201clike using barbed wire fences to shut out flies\u201d. Yet this was just at the point that mortality rates were ramping up in the western states of the US and Canada. Despite Nicolle\u2019s discovery, various authorities began making masks compulsory. San Francisco was the first major US city to do so in October 1918, continuing on and off over a three-month period.<\/span><\/p>\n Alberta in Canada did likewise, and New South Wales, Australia, followed suit when the disease arrived in January 1919 (the state basing its decision on scientific evidence older than Charles Nicolle\u2019s findings). The only American state to make masks mandatory was (briefly) California, while on the east coast and in other countries including the UK they were merely recommended for most people.<\/span><\/p>\n Numerous photographs, like the one above, survive of large crowds wearing masks in the months after Nicolle\u2019s discovery. But many had begun to distrust masks, and saw them as a violation of civil liberties. According to a November 1918 front page report from Utah\u2019s Garland City Globe:<\/span><\/p>\n The average man wore the mask slung to the back of his neck until he came in sight of a policeman, and most people had holes cut into them to stick their cigars and cigarettes through.<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n San Francisco saw the creation of the\u00a0anti-mask league, as well as protests and civil disobedience. People refused to wear masks in public or flaunted wearing them improperly. Some went to prison for not wearing them or refusing to pay fines.<\/span><\/p>\n In Tucson, Arizona, a banker insisted on going to jail instead of paying his fine for not masking up. In other western states, judges regularly refused to wear them in courtrooms. In Alberta, \u201cscores\u201d were fined in police courts for not wearing masks. In New South Wales, reports of violations flooded newspapers immediately after masks were made compulsory. Not even stretcher bearers carrying influenza victims followed the rules.<\/span><\/p>\n England was different. Masks were only advised as a precautionary measure in large cities, and then only for certain groups, such as influenza nurses in Manchester and Liverpool. Serious questions about efficacy only arose in March 1919, and only within the scientific community. Most British scientists now united against them, with the Lancet calling masks a \u201cdubious remedy\u201d.<\/span><\/p>\n These arguments were steadily being bolstered by statistics from the US. The head of California\u2019s state board of health had presented late 1918 findings from San Francisco\u2019s best run hospital showing that 78% of nurses became infected despite their careful wearing of masks.<\/span><\/p>\n Physicians and health authorities also presented statistics comparing San Francisco\u2019s mortality rates with nearby San Mateo, Los Angeles and Chicago, none of which had made masks compulsory. Their mortality rates were either \u201cno worse\u201d or less. By the end of the pandemic in 1919, most scientists and health commissions had come to a consensus\u00a0not unlike ours\u00a0about the benefits of wearing masks.<\/span><\/p>\n Clearly, many of these details are relevant today. It\u2019s telling that a frivolous requirement became such an issue while more severe rules banned things like talking on street corners, kissing your fianc\u00e9 or attending religious services \u2013 even in the heart of America\u2019s Bible belt.<\/span><\/p>\n Perhaps there\u2019s something about masks and human impulses that has yet to be studied properly. If mass resistance to the mask should arise in the months to come, it will be interesting to see if new research will produce any useful findings on phobias about covering the face.<\/span><\/p>\n Samuel <\/strong>Cohn * Published in print edition on <\/em>5 May 2020<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":" Over 30 countries today are making people wear masks in public, despite serious doubts from scientists.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":139,"featured_media":26738,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_dont_email_post_to_subs":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paywalled_content":false,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":"","jetpack_publicize_message":"","jetpack_publicize_feature_enabled":true,"jetpack_social_post_already_shared":true,"jetpack_social_options":{"image_generator_settings":{"template":"highway","default_image_id":0,"font":"","enabled":false},"version":2}},"categories":[8348],"tags":[24362,21808,24363,24361,17359,17488,18384],"class_list":["post-26737","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-the-conversation","tag-alberta","tag-coronavirus","tag-face-masks","tag-new-south-wales","tag-pandemic","tag-san-francisco","tag-spanish-flu"],"jetpack_publicize_connections":[],"jetpack_featured_media_url":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.mauritiustimes.com\/mt\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/05\/Mask.jpg?fit=1192%2C792&ssl=1","jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_shortlink":"https:\/\/wp.me\/p8QzSF-6Xf","_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.mauritiustimes.com\/mt\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/26737","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.mauritiustimes.com\/mt\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.mauritiustimes.com\/mt\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.mauritiustimes.com\/mt\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/139"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.mauritiustimes.com\/mt\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=26737"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.mauritiustimes.com\/mt\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/26737\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.mauritiustimes.com\/mt\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/26738"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.mauritiustimes.com\/mt\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=26737"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.mauritiustimes.com\/mt\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=26737"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.mauritiustimes.com\/mt\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=26737"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}![\"\"](\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.mauritiustimes.com\/mt\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/05\/Mask.jpg?resize=640%2C425&ssl=1\")
<\/span>Red Cross nurses in San Francisco, 1918.\u00a0Wikimedia<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\nThe great shutdown<\/span><\/h4>\n
Shifting science<\/span><\/h4>\n
Disobedience aplenty<\/span><\/h4>\n
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\n<\/strong><\/span>Professor of History, University of Glasgow<\/span><\/p>\n
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